HISTORICAL AND LITERARY CONTEXTS: PAUL’S LETTER TO THE EPHESIANS
Written by: Dennis Bailey, Jr.
Historical Context
Herein will be a discussion of the historical context of the Epistle to the Ephesians in terms of authorship, provenance, date of origin, and recipients and destination.
Authorship
Much has been written in regards to the authorship of the Epistle to the Ephesians. The work begins with the supposed author’s name, which is Paul.[1] Criticism throughout the years has cast doubt upon this seemingly obvious fact of authorship. When scholars compare this work to the other works of Paul, there seems to be a noticeable level of inconsistency of the vocabulary and literary style of Ephesians, leading some to question the Pauline authorship of the Epistle. However, proponents of Pauline authorship respond to that criticism with the reasonable possibility that the use of different vocabulary and a different style was present in this work simply because this work has a purpose and situation different from his other surviving works.[2]
Clinton Arnold gives seven specific reasons to support his assertion that Paul was the author of this letter.[3] Peter O’Brien is also a believer in the Pauline authorship, who holds the position that the burden of proof against such an obvious claim lies solely on those who deny the claim.[4] It is the opinion of the author that sufficient evidence to the contrary has not been provided, so it is safe to conclude that the Apostle Paul was the true author of Ephesians.
Provenance
The issue of provenance is closely related to the issues of authorship and the date of origin, the latter of which will be discussed in the next section. The Book of Acts details some of Paul’s travels, and it provides a good frame of reference when considering the historicity of the letters of Paul. The most popular opinion among scholars who claim Pauline authorship of the letter, with whom the author concurs, is that the letter was written in Rome, while Paul was imprisoned.[5] The historical evidence is strongest in favor of this view.
Date of Origin
There is sufficient evidence that Ephesians was written during Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. The Roman imprisonment of Paul can be narrowly dated between 60 A.D. and 62 A.D.[6] To be more specific in narrowing a probable date is practically impossible because there is simply little, if any, historical evidence on which to make such a claim. However, from a practical perspective, Clinton Arnold considers the “most viable” dates of the writing to be between 61 A.D. and 62 A.D. for a few practical reasons.[7] Two of the reasons are that Paul would have needed time to communicate with Onesimus, which must have preceded the writing of Ephesians, as well as receiving word from the churches that scholars believe Paul directed his prison epistles: Colossae, Ephesus, and Philippi.[8] Despite this, it is possible that Ephesians could have been written at the tail end of 60 A.D., so to select a date within the aforementioned three-year window is to split hairs. Lastly, selecting an exact time period in which Ephesians was written affects the interpretation of the letter in no practical way, so therefore it is a moot point.
Recipients and Destination
There is little doubt that the intended recipients of Ephesians were Gentile Christians. In Ephesians 3:1 Paul wrote, “I, Paul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus for the sake of you Gentiles,”[9] confirming his divine office of Apostle to the Gentiles. Peter T. O’Brien agrees with this assessment.[10] The question of the intended destination of Ephesians is not settled so easily.
There are typically three possibilities in regards to what was the intended destination of Ephesians. One is that it was written to a specific church in Ephesus, another is that it was written to the believers in the general area of Ephesus (not just one congregation), and the last is that it was written to an audience completely separate from Ephesus. The evidence is overwhelming against the last possibility, so for the sake of brevity that one is immediately ruled out, leaving the first two alternatives for further discussion.
The question of the intended recipients and destination of this letter may, to a large extent, depend on one’s translation of the original text, specifically whether or not one includes the prepositional phrase, “in Ephesus,” in reference to the saints/believers in the very first verse of the letter or not.[11] If one considers the phrase as part of the original text, then one would obviously conclude that the letter was intended for that church. Conversely, if the phrase is not in the original text, then that opens the door to a wider intended audience. The problem in determining if the phrase should be included or not is that there are several surviving copies of the letter that include the phrase, and there are several more copies that do not include the phrase, so this complicates the matter significantly.
However, this is not necessarily an either/or situation. It is possible that Ephesians was written for not just one, but for multiple congregations in Ephesus and the surrounding area. This makes sense because some of the manuscripts include the phrase “in Ephesus” and others do not. F.F. Bruce cites the view of E.J. Goodspeed and many others that hold that the form of Ephesians is that of an encyclical.[12] One can speculate that the manuscripts intended for Ephesus include “in Ephesus,” while the others that are not intended for Ephesus omitted that phrase. To conclude the point, the author concurs with Clinton Arnold who summarizes his position as follows, “Paul wrote this letter to a large network of local churches in Ephesus and the surrounding cities.”[13] It is quite possible that Ephesians was written for churches in and around Ephesus.
Literary Context
The literary context of the Epistle to the Ephesians will be explored in terms of the literary structure, genre, purpose, and a summary of the theological message.
Literary Structure
The literary structure of the Epistle to the Ephesians is depicted via the chart that accompanies this work.
Genre
The genre of Ephesians may possibly be the area of the most agreement among scholars. Although it is not unanimous, the majority maintain that Ephesians follows the pattern of a letter since it has a typical address, greetings, and a closing that mirrors many known letters from that time and from Paul’s hand.[14] Some have proposed the idea that it may have been a sermon, speech, or even an essay, but these letter-like features should immediately discount these other hypotheses as possibilities.[15]
F.F. Bruce, in his work The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, hardly mentions the issue of genre, assuming that it is a letter.[16] There is simply not sufficient evidence to conclude that Ephesians is anything but a letter.
Purpose
In order to understand the purpose of Ephesians, one must first understand the tense relationship between the Jews and Gentiles in the first century. The Old Testament Scriptures taught that the Jews were the chosen people of God, so they had to come to terms with the fact that the cross of Christ was intended for everyone, including Jews and Gentiles.[17] Also, the Gentiles did not have a history of obeying a slew of laws from the Torah like the Jews, so Paul undertook the writing of Ephesians in part to promote unity among the church.[18]
The Jews had a rich history of being guided by God in holy living, but this was not necessarily the case in regards to the Gentiles. Some Gentiles may have followed other faiths, and some may not have had any religious history at all. This certainly caused conflict with the Jews, many of whom had devoted much of their lives to godly living. Therefore, Paul wrote Ephesians to give guidance and to urge the believers to live holy lives. Paul expounded on the theme that all believers have a responsibility to live in accordance with their divine calling in Christ.[19] To this end, believers in Christ must be strengthened in their struggle against sin, and they must transform their lives to follow holiness and righteousness.[20]
F.F. Bruce wrote that one of the main purposes of the letter was, “To encourage Gentile Christians to appreciate the dignity of their calling, with its implication not only for the heavenly origin and destiny but also for their present conduct on earth.”[21]
This, in theory, would bring the Gentiles spiritually closer to Jewish Christians, for when the Jews see the Gentiles pursuing righteous living the Jews will realize that the Gentiles are serious about their faith. This goes back to the issue of creating unity between Jews and Gentiles, as they forge a brotherhood together. F.F. Bruce summarizes Paul’s clarification with these words, “The Jews’ standing in the divine purpose is not imperiled by the ingathering of Gentiles; rather, the grace of God is magnified in his dealings with both Jews and Gentiles.”[22]
Summary of Theological Messages
Volumes upon volumes have been written in regards to the theological messages in Ephesians, so for the sake of brevity only a few major themes will be mentioned herein. They are the work of the Holy Spirit and salvation by grace through faith. First, there are several ways in which Ephesians can be divided into two halves.
F.F. Bruce gives a good summary of the two halves of the letter. The theme that runs through the first half concerns unity in the divine society comprised of Jews and Gentiles.[23] The second theme that runs through the latter half is advice on how the Gentile churches should act and function.[24] Peter T. O’Brien takes another path and describes the first and second halves as doctrinal and ethical, respectively.[25]
No matter which way one looks at it, these themes concern the Holy Spirit. More specific theological issues abound. F.F. Bruce focuses on the work of the Holy Spirit and how it is a witness to the deity of Christ.[26] The presence of the Holy Spirit, according to Paul, has ushered in the last days that were prophesied by Joel.[27] Because of this, Bruce wrote that, “The age of the Spirit has superseded the age of Torah.”[28] Although this changed everything for a Jewish Christian, it was no doubt good news. Bruce goes on to write that, “The Holy Spirit is the present guarantee of coming resurrection and glory.”[29] The Holy Spirit also guarantees a believer’s heavenly inheritance by virtue of the fact that each and every believer is sealed with the Holy Spirit.[30]
Salvation by grace through faith is another major theological issue in Ephesians. Paul contrasts salvation by grace with salvation by the works of human hands.[31] To this end, salvation is not only a future reality, but it is also a present condition.[32] It is no coincidence that Paul used the perfect tense when he wrote, “You have been saved,” “Made…alive with Christ,” “Raised…with him,” and, “Seated…with him.”[33] It is clear that these actions have been completed.
All of these aspects of Ephesians barely scratch the surface of an amazing work of Scripture written by a great man of the Christian faith.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arnold, Clinton E. Ephesians, Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New
Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2010.
Bruce, F. F. The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians. The
New International Commentary on the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984.
Holy Bible, New International Version Large-Print Edition. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.
O’Brien, Peter T. The Letter to the Ephesians. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999.
Wilkinson, Bruce and Kenneth Boa. Talk thru the Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Eph. 1:1 [NIV].
[2] Bruce Wilkinson & Kenneth Boa. Talk Thru the Bible. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2002), 400.
[3] These seven reasons can be found on pages 46 – 50 of the following work: Clinton E. Arnold. Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament: Ephesians. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010).
[4] Peter T. O’Brien. The Letter to the Ephesians. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999), 4.
[5] Arnold, 51.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Arnold, 52.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Eph. 3:1 [NIV].
[10] O’Brien, 57.
[11] Author Peter T. O’Brien provides contrasting view points on pages 47 – 49 of the following work: Peter T. O’Brien. The Letter to the Ephesians. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999).
[12] F.F. Bruce. The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1984), 230.
[13] Arnold, 45.
[14] Arnold, 54 – 55.
[15] Arnold, 54.
[16] F.F. Bruce consistently refers to Ephesians as ‘letter’ in this work without an explanation of why it is not an example of another literary form. The author concludes that this is apparently because it is such an obvious conclusion that Bruce uses his energy to tackle more important issues.
[17] Arnold, 21.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Wilkinson & Boa, 401.
[20] Arnold, 45.
[21] Bruce, 245.
[22] Bruce, 232.
[23] Bruce, 241.
[24] Ibid.
[25] O’Brien, 66.
[26] Bruce, 233.
[27] Ibid.; Joel 2:28 – 32 [NIV].
[28] Bruce, 234.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] O’Brien, 23.
[32] Arnold, 494.
[33] Clinton Arnold makes reference to Eph. 2:5 – 6 on page 494 of his work.
